Lava Beds National Monument, California-image-esc04286

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    <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/ex_magician/">ex_magician</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ex_magician/53607293705/" title="Winter"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53607293705_a1f59dcc42_m.jpg" width="240" height="185" alt="Winter" /></a></p> <p>Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/26953621@N03/">Zenas M</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/26953621@N03/53532618694/" title="EARTH: 4.4bya to 4.3bya"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53532618694_8fc71be53c_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="EARTH: 4.4bya to 4.3bya" /></a></p> <p>In Earth's history, the period from 4.54bya to 4bya is known as the Hadean Eon, named after Hades, the Greek god of the dead and king of the underworld.<br /> <br /> Presumably because the Hadean Earth was desolate and grim. Underworldy.<br /> <br /> But the underworld of Greek myth was actually fairly bucolic, with rivers, meadows, isles, fields and dogs (albeit three-headed ones). Obviously, you had to be dead to be there, which was not ideal, but other than that it seemed quite pleasant.<br /> <br /> In contrast, the Hadean Earth was more like the Medieval Christian view of Hell, a place of fire and brimstone.<br /> <br /> It was hot. Birthed in violence, the very early Earth probably had magma oceans, forming vast seas of boiling viscous orange fluid.<br /> <br /> And then, as it cooled, the Earth was once again liquefied when it was struck by Theia. As if that were not enough, further heat was generated by the decay of radioactive isotopes within its interior.<br /> <br /> By 4.4bya, though, the planet had cooled and a crust had probably formed on top of the magma sea, just as crust now forms on lava as it spews from a volcano. This crust is often basalt.<br /> <br /> Regrettably, I have never had a chance to photograph active lava flows. The closest is a 30,000-year-old one in Lava Beds National Monument in California (photo).<br /> <br /> So, we have established that the Earth now had a basaltic crust. But what lay within?<br /> <br /> At this stage, the Earth was, in effect, a huge ball of molten rock. Over time, the heavier elements, such as iron and small amounts of nickel, sank to the centre to form what is known as the core.<br /> <br /> Now, the Earth's core consists of an inner core, which is solid like a cannonball, and an outer core, which is liquid. The outer core becomes relevant again later in our story, so we'll come back to that.<br /> <br /> But, in the Hadean, and indeed for 1 to 2 billion years thereafter, the core was entirely liquid.<br /> <br /> As an aside, our core is larger than expected, which is part of the evidence for the theory that the Earth was struck by Theia (the event that formed the Moon). The cores of the two planetesimals merged into one.<br /> <br /> Which is quite romantic, if you want to think of it in those terms.<br /> <br /> So, if the Earth were an egg (which it isn't – at least, I hope it isn't, otherwise we're all in trouble), the yolk is the core of molten iron-nickel alloy, and the shell is a crust of basalt. So what is the white of the egg?<br /> <br /> This is the mantle, which consisted (and still consists) largely of molten minerals rich in silicon. Nowadays, there is an inner and an outer mantle, although this probably wasn't the case in the Hadean.<br /> <br /> So, by 4.3bya, the interior structure of the Earth was broadly similar to how it is now. Core, mantle, crust.<br /> <br /> But there is something that has not been mentioned in this description of Earth.<br /> <br /> Something that is very obvious now if you stand on a coastal promontory, or if you flush a toilet, or get caught in a downpour.<br /> <br /> That something is water.</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/194908364@N07/">theeverlastinggreenbean</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/194908364@N07/53508853429/" title="Schonchin Butte Lookout"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53508853429_746b7be093_m.jpg" width="240" height="162" alt="Schonchin Butte Lookout" /></a></p> <p>Lava Beds National Monument <br /> California, USA</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485691453/" title="00506 Some of the trees had burnt along the trail to Schonshin Butte"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485691453_52fed76d5a_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00506 Some of the trees had burnt along the trail to Schonshin Butte" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639792/" title="00659 Some pictographs at Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639792_4f1c6dc0f9_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00659 Some pictographs at Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485691218/" title="00730 One of the two Fleener Chimneys, where lava once spurted out of the earth"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485691218_c207363f11_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00730 One of the two Fleener Chimneys, where lava once spurted out of the earth" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639802/" title="00644 We dayhiked to Symbol Bridge, a lava tube with many Native pictographs"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639802_6f49d18204_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00644 We dayhiked to Symbol Bridge, a lava tube with many Native pictographs" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485853224/" title="00530 Up near the top of the cone, we had a choice of paths - we headed for the lookout tower"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485853224_5c3d710667_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00530 Up near the top of the cone, we had a choice of paths - we headed for the lookout tower" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639977/" title="00499 We decided to climb Schonshin Butte via the Schonshin Lookout Trail"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639977_66ef31a598_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00499 We decided to climb Schonshin Butte via the Schonshin Lookout Trail" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485549751/" title="00538 The fire lookout tower, which is now a historical landmark"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485549751_c3436e4654_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00538 The fire lookout tower, which is now a historical landmark" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485549681/" title="00628 View of the butte from the southeast. The lookout is on the right side of the rim"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485549681_4278b4df2a_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00628 View of the butte from the southeast. The lookout is on the right side of the rim" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485853014/" title="00744 The chimney hole at the other Fleener Chimney, in Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485853014_b31414c560_m.jpg" width="240" height="180" alt="00744 The chimney hole at the other Fleener Chimney, in Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639987/" title="00482 Eating breakfast in camp, powering up for our morning hike"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639987_972717da9d_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00482 Eating breakfast in camp, powering up for our morning hike" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485549716/" title="00561 View down into the crater from the tower, with Mount Shasta in the distance to the west"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485549716_d06c134446_m.jpg" width="240" height="180" alt="00561 View down into the crater from the tower, with Mount Shasta in the distance to the west" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485691188/" title="00734 There was a protective grill over the deep hole where lava once erupted, at Fleener Chimneys"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485691188_b272bf88ec_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00734 There was a protective grill over the deep hole where lava once erupted, at Fleener Chimneys" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639697/" title="00548 Panorama view northwest toward Mount Shasta from the fire tower on Schonshin Butte"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639697_f87bd47733_m.jpg" width="240" height="111" alt="00548 Panorama view northwest toward Mount Shasta from the fire tower on Schonshin Butte" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485961230/" title="00649 The entrance to the lava tube called Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485961230_0d26ccb305_m.jpg" width="240" height="139" alt="00649 The entrance to the lava tube called Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485961330/" title="00728 We decided to have lunch at the Fleener Chimneys in Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485961330_2553d6e6fd_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00728 We decided to have lunch at the Fleener Chimneys in Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53485549566/" title="00739 Looking downward at the chimney itself, where lave once erupted, at Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53485549566_4f62485103_m.jpg" width="240" height="180" alt="00739 Looking downward at the chimney itself, where lave once erupted, at Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/people/_jfr_/">_JFR_</a> posted a photo:</p> <p><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/_jfr_/53484639787/" title="00682 Some pictographs at Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument"><img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/53484639787_6e5bdc7d36_m.jpg" width="240" height="160" alt="00682 Some pictographs at Symbol Bridge in Lava Beds National Monument" /></a></p>

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